The Unspoken Etiquette of Book Reviewing

The Unspoken Etiquette of Book Reviewing We all live Book reviews, for instance. To many of us, a review is simply clicking the number of stars and giving a one-liner of whether we liked it or not. Fine if you are a reader. Not cool if you are an author. Why? Because whatever you write online, inckuding a book review, reflects on your writing abilities. Lets talk about what you DO when you offer to write a book review. 1) You post on Amazon or Goodreads. Frankly, unless you write for some mighty big organizations like Kirkus, Publishers Weekly, or Foreword, or have a social media or blog with followers in the thousands, the most important reviews you can write are on Amazon and Goodreads. A lot of decisions are made 2) You review promptly. Dont request a review copy unless you are ready to be part of the team to get the news out timely. That usually means within two to four weeks of receipt. 3) You follow-through and do the review. Someone paid for those books and that postage in hopes you are going to follow through with your promise. Often $8 to $15. Put that book on the top of your to-be-read stack. Dont think, They wont miss it. Not true. Every review matters. 4) Write a meaty review. What did you love about it and what rubbed you wrong. Show that you actually read the book. A simple I liked it will not convince anyone to purchase or not purchase the book. The reason you were chosen to review the book was to post an honest analysis. 5) Avoid writing spoilers. Would you buy a book after reading  a review that gives away the twists and plot? When I bring up the topic of reviews in chats, on Facebook, or at conferences, writers grumble. They grumble BIG time. Therefore, as a writer, you have a responsibility to review professionally. You know what it feels like. When books are sent out for review, theres an unspoken time constraint. They are attempting to boost notice of the release, boost sales, and measure the success of the book. If you are given a gratuitous book, jump on the review. Only if you buy the book on your own do you buy the right to take your time. But regardless, write the review intelligently . . . write it well. Make people WANT you to review their next book.

Bulimia essays

Bulimia essays When most people hear of the word eating disorder they usually automatically assume that the person has some type of problem with food. Eating disorders are not a sign that a person has a problem with food, but are usually underlying problems in a persons life. Factors of peoples life usually determine whether or not they will have an eating disorder. Eating disorder victims usually have low self-esteem and low self worth. There are common and uncommon eating disorders, but they are all deadly in their own ways. The two most common are anorexia and bulimia. These two diseases take a big toll on peoples lives Anorexia is characterized by a massive weight loss resulting from extreme amounts of dieting. Most women and a large number of men are motivated by the want and desire to be thin and the fear of becoming fat. Anorexics consider themselves to be fat no matter how much they really weigh. Although some may be incredibly thin they still feel fat even if they are underweight. The process of eating becomes a type of obsession. People usually develop unusual eating habits and start eating in small quantities and portioning their food. People with anorexia repeatedly check their weight. They usually begin to exercise compulsively and they often begin taking laxatives, enemas and begin purging their food. Anorexics usually strive for perfection. They set very high standards for themselves and feel they always need to prove something. They put others needs ahead of their own. A person with anorexia may also feel the only control they have in their lives is in the area of food and weight. Each morning the number on the scale will determine whether or not they have succeeded or failed in their goal for thinness. They feel powerful and in control when they can make themselves lose weight. . Anorexics usually have low self-esteem and sometimes feel they don't deserve to eat, and usually deny that anything is wron ...

Monophysite vs. Monophysitism Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Monophysite vs. Monophysitism - Assignment Example Monophysitism was a reaction against the earlier Nestorian heresy, which viewed Christ as being two distinct persons with two distinct natures. Monophysitism is the viewpoint that Christ was a single, composite person with a single, composite nature that was neither God nor man, but a unique combination of both. Monophysites are the people and groups that embrace that viewpoint (Gregory, 2005). Orthodox Christians observe various fasts, including each Wednesday and each Friday. Wednesday is considered to be the day that the Jews conspired against Jesus, while Friday is considered to be the day of His crucifixion (Belwal & Tafesse, January, 2010). However, the Bible instructs Christians to be joyful, not dismal, in fasting, as it is for God and not for man that they fast (Matt. 6:16-17). Fasting should not be done out of guilt or self-hatred (Deville, 2005). Fasting, for Middle Eastern Orthodox Christians, is not done out of survival guilt, following famine, nor even done in memory of the more than 100,000 Orthodox Christians massacred by the Turks, nor for the millions starved and killed in the ongoing Orthodox Christian Holocaust around the world (Moore, 1999). It is done in obedience to Christ and in

Macbeth, The Odyssey, Beowulf and Gulliver's travels Essay

Macbeth, The Odyssey, Beowulf and Gulliver's travels - Essay Example To spur Macbeth into action, Lady Macbeth indicates she is the stronger character because â€Å"I have given suck, and know / How tender ‘tis to love the babe that milks me: / I would, while it was smiling in my face, / Have plucked the nipple from his boneless gums / And dashed the brains out, had I so sworn† (I, vii, 54-58). Although guilt forces him to go through with the murder of the king, Macbeth becomes a victim to a new kind of guilt following the murder that far surpasses anything he had experienced before it. When Macbeth willingly participates in murder, this quickly escalates to massacres of perceived enemies and the propagation of lies and deceits as a means of maintaining the perception others have of him. As Macbeth confesses to his wife his fears regarding his inability to say ‘Amen’ (II, ii) following his first murder, she consoles him and warns him against the future both share, â€Å"These deeds must not be thought / After these ways; so, it will make us mad† (II, ii, 32-33). Despite this warning, though, neither character seems capable of escaping the inevitable deterioration of the soul that their actions have brought upon them. Because of this guilt, Macbeth begins seeing ghosts of friends he has murdered on the suspicion that they might accuse him of Duncan’s murder and Lady Macbeth goes insane in an attempt to cleanse herself of the guilt that has infected her soul. Like Macbeth, a great portion of Odysseus’ tale is brought about as a response to guilt. He has fought well and bravely before Troy and, at the beginning of his story, is preparing to return home to his wife Penelope and the young son he has yet to meet. However, in willingly joining in battle on Troy, which was strongly associated with ideas of family and home, Odysseus has committed a crime that must be atoned for. Zeus makes this clear in

Finding the Right Apartment Essay Example for Free

Finding the Right Apartment Essay So you are ready to take a leap of faith and branch out on your own, into the world and embrace your new found freedom by renting an apartment. That is fantastic, but first you may need help with choosing the apartment that best suits you, your lifestyle and most importantly, your budget. This is all a fairly easy project to accomplish if you know what you are doing, but it can also be very time consuming and stressful if you do not know what you are doing while also juggling a full time job. First, you have to locate a few different apartments to be able to choose the one you love. Start by doing some research on the internet. Also, ask around your community if you plan on staying in the current area you are in now. Make sure to read the local newspapers as well. If you have children, research apartment communities closet to their school. If you have pets, find apartments that will accommodate them. Research the area to see if you are near a bus line, a taxi service or within close proximity to your family and friends, should you ever need a ride to and from work due to car troubles. After that, try your best to narrow your list down to three or four apartments. Next, meet with the leasing agents for each of the apartments you want to view. Make sure you take a good look around and see everything they have to offer. Ask what type of amenities the complex has to offer. For example, do they have a gated entrance, 24 hour gym, a pool, a spa or sauna, playground area, garages for rent and/or laundry mat services on site? When inside the actual apartment, check to make sure how many bedrooms will be beneficial to you. Make sure there is enough closet and cabinet space for all of your belongings. Ask any and all questions. Be sure to ask about alarm services if you notice an alarm system built in. Ask if everything is gas or electric powered and if it has central heating and air. Ask what utility companies they use. You may be able to transfer over your previous services if they use the same ones. If you do not like the current color of the walls, ask if you can paint over them, as long as you paint them back or prime them upon move out. Also, decide if you want a bottom or top floor and ask if your preference is available. Of course, problems and hurdles may arise, but with honesty and careful consideration of the initial problem, you can overcome the problems. Some problems that may arise are bad information on your background check that will stall the rental process. Be honest with them and they may be willing to work with you under the circumstances. Another hurdle could be unexpected problems with your finances. In this case, you will need to sit down. Go over your finances and make cuts on what you do not need and factor in what you do need. Play around with the numbers until you have comfortably figured out your living expenses. You may end up being one of the lucky ones and have a â€Å"smooth sailing† through the entire rental process, but if you do not, take it one step at a time until you have overcome any and all obstacles. Once you have decided upon the right apartment complex for you, you will need to sign a lease. Before your sign the lease and pay all your deposit and application fees, ask if your deposit is refundable. Also ask if they give application fee discounts if you are a college student. Decide the lease length you need and ask if they offer month to month, a 3 month, 6 month, 12 month or 18 month lease. Ask if the lease is a done locked deal or if you can break the lease say you should have to move away. Remember that no question is a wrong question, so ask anything that comes to mind. After you sign that lease, congratulations, you are now an adult with your very own place. Living on your own can be difficult at times but it is very rewarding and empowering and it helps to boost your confidence and self esteem. Knowing you have truly stepped into your own skin and into true adulthood is one of the greatest satisfactions you may experience in your young life. Taste it, savor it and enjoy it. You deserve it!

The Merchant of Venice Essay example -- Merchant of Venice Essays

William Shakespeare’s The Merchant of Venice is one of his most controversial plays for a variety of reasons. Written in sixteenth-century England, where anti-Semitism was common and the presence of Jews was not, the play poses many questions concerning racial, religious and human difference. The play is especially tricky to examine in today’s society, as its anti-Semitic themes and language can be uncomfortable to face in a world post-Holocaust. Additionally, the depiction of the relationship between Jews and Christians, which has always been an ambivalent one, adds a very interesting albeit difficult dimension to this play. Ultimately, through dramatic plot and distinctive characters, The Merchant of Venice explores what it means to be Jewish and what it means to be Christian. A closer analysis of these opposing groups unearths inconsistencies between what the characters preach versus what they practice, as well as their problematic notions of justice, mercy and love. Though he clearly fulfills the role of the villain and main antagonist in this play, the character of Shylock is extremely complex and multi-dimensional. He seems to have two sides that can be emphasized or played up in order to create a fundamentally different play, as has been done many times throughout history; post-Holocaust reproductions, for example, are obviously radically unlike than ones that may have come before (Rich 1). In most modern adaptations, Shylock is seen as a sympathetic character, perhaps due in part to the widespread acceptance in most modern societies of those from varying religious and racial backgrounds. However, it is entirely possible that Shakespeare, who was a genius playwright famous for his complex and multi-faceted characters, del... ... actually considered this a happy ending for the Shylock character (4); by converting he is â€Å"saved† from the possibility that â€Å"misfortune [may] cross†¦ / †¦ a faithless Jew† (2.4.35-37). This paper barely scratched the surface of the religious and moral complexity that is The Merchant of Venice, but it is clearly a complicated play and for many reasons: the racially charged tension, the anti-Semitic language and the morally ambiguous characters. What makes this play so exciting is that it provides neither answers nor apologies, provoking the ongoing disagreement as to what is really happening in this play. Shakespeare’s multi-layered characters and complicated representations of mercy, justice, love, religion and difference produce a remarkable piece of work that has kept people talking and guessing for centuries, and is sure to continue to for centuries to come.

Erikson and Meet the Parents

Erik Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development details eight different stages describing a healthy human’s development from infancy to late adulthood. Each stage presents a new conflict between a biological and sociocultural force. Successful negotiation of these forces results in the individual moving the next stage with the favored attribute. Mastery of each stage’s challenges isn’t necessary to advance to the next stage but unconquered challenges are likely to reappear in the future. Almost every movie out exemplifies some form of family dynamics and Erikson’s stages of development.However, the movie I chose to demonstrate two characters in two different psychosocial development stages is Meet the Parents. Meet the Parents depicts Greg Focker’s struggle to gain his girlfriend Pam’s dad’s approval for her hand in marriage. For many men asking the love of your life’s dad for approval to marry her can be a very nerve-r acking and scary experience. For Greg, a Jewish male nurse, Murphy’s Law takes over and the situation becomes more embarrassing than expected. It doesn’t help that Pam’s father is a strict, overbearing, ex CIA agent with a lie detector in the basement.The two characters I will be relating to different stages of Erikson’s developmental theory are Greg Focker and his soon to be father-in-law Jack Byrnes. Greg Focker is definitely in the Intimacy vs. Isolation stage of development that typically occurs between ages 20-24. His existential question is â€Å"Can Love? † Greg has established his career and identity and is open to the ideas of love and marriage. He is ready to make a long-term commitment and has done so with Pam, his live in girlfriend.Their intimate, reciprocal relationship has made Greg willing to make sacrifices and compromises required to make her happy and their relationship function. This concept is exemplified throughout the movie a s Greg goes to great lengths to gain the approval of his loved one’s father, Jack. Since Greg has been able to form an intimate relationship with Pam, intimacy has prevailed over isolation. Jack Byrnes is in middle adulthood; his internal conflict is generativity vs. stagnation. The main question faced by individuals between the ages of 25-64 is â€Å"Can I Make My Life Count? Generativity is the concern of guiding the next generation. Jack already possesses a sense of generativity since he has been married, raised a family and contributed to society through his career in the CIA. He is now concerned about the next generation of his family, his daughter’s family and offspring. Although his daughter is grown he is still trying to help her grow into a responsible adult and having trouble accepting her soon to be spouse. However, in the end he does learn to accept Greg and master generativity; as a result he is on his way to the last stage of life which focuses on the vi rtue of wisdom. Erikson and Meet the Parents Erik Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development details eight different stages describing a healthy human’s development from infancy to late adulthood. Each stage presents a new conflict between a biological and sociocultural force. Successful negotiation of these forces results in the individual moving the next stage with the favored attribute. Mastery of each stage’s challenges isn’t necessary to advance to the next stage but unconquered challenges are likely to reappear in the future. Almost every movie out exemplifies some form of family dynamics and Erikson’s stages of development.However, the movie I chose to demonstrate two characters in two different psychosocial development stages is Meet the Parents. Meet the Parents depicts Greg Focker’s struggle to gain his girlfriend Pam’s dad’s approval for her hand in marriage. For many men asking the love of your life’s dad for approval to marry her can be a very nerve-r acking and scary experience. For Greg, a Jewish male nurse, Murphy’s Law takes over and the situation becomes more embarrassing than expected. It doesn’t help that Pam’s father is a strict, overbearing, ex CIA agent with a lie detector in the basement.The two characters I will be relating to different stages of Erikson’s developmental theory are Greg Focker and his soon to be father-in-law Jack Byrnes. Greg Focker is definitely in the Intimacy vs. Isolation stage of development that typically occurs between ages 20-24. His existential question is â€Å"Can Love? † Greg has established his career and identity and is open to the ideas of love and marriage. He is ready to make a long-term commitment and has done so with Pam, his live in girlfriend.Their intimate, reciprocal relationship has made Greg willing to make sacrifices and compromises required to make her happy and their relationship function. This concept is exemplified throughout the movie a s Greg goes to great lengths to gain the approval of his loved one’s father, Jack. Since Greg has been able to form an intimate relationship with Pam, intimacy has prevailed over isolation. Jack Byrnes is in middle adulthood; his internal conflict is generativity vs. stagnation. The main question faced by individuals between the ages of 25-64 is â€Å"Can I Make My Life Count? Generativity is the concern of guiding the next generation. Jack already possesses a sense of generativity since he has been married, raised a family and contributed to society through his career in the CIA. He is now concerned about the next generation of his family, his daughter’s family and offspring. Although his daughter is grown he is still trying to help her grow into a responsible adult and having trouble accepting her soon to be spouse. However, in the end he does learn to accept Greg and master generativity; as a result he is on his way to the last stage of life which focuses on the vi rtue of wisdom.

A Look Into The Arts Essay

Art is one aspect of the past that has carried on for decades. Art in any form may it be poetry, novels, and playwright, sculpting as well as painting, has been an outlet for generations and continues to be an outlet and a means for expression. This paper will discuss â€Å" The Mona Lisa† one of Da Vinci’s most famous paintings, as well as another great painting, Antonio Veneziano’s â€Å"Virgin and Child†(c. 1380). Both paintings focus on the human form and exhibit many variations of styles from lines, shading, color and possible meanings behind the work. The first piece of artwork that will be looked is from the Renaissance Era. Da Vinci’s â€Å"Mona Lisa†(c. 1519) a painting that is known around the world, which has been known to cause skepticism as to who is this woman. Did she really exist? Or is this merely a self-portrait that Da Vinci was able to show his private devotion for the female form? The second piece of artwork that will be discussed is from The Middle Ages. Antonio Veneziano’s â€Å"Virgin and Child†(c. 1380) both pieces of art work stem from different eras but share many commonalities as well as shows the transformation of art techniques from Sfumato, to perspective, as well as linear perspective, Humanism, foreshortening and more between each era. In the Early Renaissance Era, artists from Da Vinci, Michelangelo, Raphael Sanzio, Piero della Francesca, Sandro Botticelli and more, developed a passion and ability to create art that could capture a moment may it be a beautiful moment or tragic moment. These artists were also able spark creativity and question in the human mind as to what is or was and why. Much like the middle Ages, art from both eras focused on religious forms, humanism, from the finite details of a lock of hair to the muscle tone. The Renaissance era developed the linear perspective to create; depth and angles in work, though the Middle Ages opened the door for linear perspective to be created. Most depictions from the Middle Ages showed a human form that was stiff and schematic, like a rough draft that was never completed. However art from the Renaissance Era had a profound effect on European art. Lilian H. Zirpolo (SNHU. â€Å"Chapter 8.† 2012 FAS 201, Introduction to Humanities I.) Stated â€Å" The outburst of creativity of the era, resulted in the most influential artistic revolution ever to have taken place.† There was so much depth and thought put into Renaissance art that it was the stepping-stone for all who dared to create. Da Vinci’ s the â€Å"Mona Lisa†(c.1519) holds Miss. Zirpolo’s statement to be true. When viewing the piece, one can see the exquisite line work and Foreshortening, to linear perspective. This art form shows his attention to detail and his passion for his work. The â€Å"Mona Lisa† (c.1519) is a small piece of artwork that became very popular. To this day the â€Å"Mona Lisa†(c.1519) still triumphs over Michelangelo’s â€Å"Creation Of Adam† (c.1511), which became a part of the â€Å"Sistine Chapel.†(C.1512) When one views â€Å"The Mona Lisa† they can see the dark color scale that is used, perhaps to depict an unhappy time. Da Vinci through out this piece is able to use an aerial perspective within the background of this portrait. Da Vinci was the first artist to successfully depict an aerial perspective. Da Vinci also uses Sfumato in his negative space by blending, blurring and softening the landscape, this technique is used to create a gradual transition between areas of different color, avoiding sharp outlines, to which I believe was done as to not take away the focal point in his positive space of the canvas. Another great aspect to the â€Å"Mona Lisa† is that is demonstrates the art of science discoveries that came to fruition in the Renaissance period, which is that they were able to acknowledge how the eye perceives light, thusly how light reacts with colors and how the human eye adapts to the change in color and light. So why is that of any significance in art? Well when one takes a painting such as the â€Å"Mona Lisa† once can see how the color gradation changes to separate the neck and face from her clothing. It creates more of a realistic feel to the art. The Middle Ages on the other hand focused on two-dimensional compositions, their depictions of humans were frail and stiff, and the human art form was inert. (SNHU. â€Å"The Middle Ages.† 2012 FAS 201, Introduction to Humanities I.) Like art from the Renaissance, they also focused a lot on Religion, saint hood and humans. In fact it depicted the importance of humans based on the size they were painted or sc ulpted. It focused on women and God, as the two were of major importance at the time. Woman we scared and givers of life and love, their beauty was unfounded and they were cherished. God was the almighty and the one who created a life form that woman were there to carry on the tradition, so to speak. Is it believed through the Bible and studies that Jesus was born into this world as a miracle from a virgin. So Antonio Veneziano’s â€Å"Virgin and Child†(c. 1380) upholds that belief and leaves room for discussion. In the early times of God and Mary and the birth of Christ it was believed that Immaculate Conception was possible, as pre-martial sex was a sin. So to have depictions of such a scene may make one wonder if it was at all possible at one point in time. This picture depicts a Virgin mother coddling her newborn, both are pictured with a â€Å"halo† above their heads which signifies the importance of their religion and the acceptance of religion into not only their life but into Gods life. As you can see here as well as in the â€Å"Mona Lisa† there is a contrast between light and dark as to separate the two bodies and distinguish the Virgin from the Child. In a personal opinion in the color choice of the Virgin as compared to the Child, I would say that light colors are used for the child because he is born pure and free from sin, where as the Virgin is with sin and thusly wears a dark robe. Art from the middle ages depicts religious events, because it was the basis of life at the time. Most art from that time were done by artists who either choose to or had to be anonymous, they we for the most part two dimensional pieces of art work with a single color background, which when looking at Antonio Veneziano’s â€Å"Virgin and Child†(c. 1380) one can see how this, the background is primarily one color, it has been shaded to show detail in the halo and architect, but holds close to the standard for Middle Aged era art. Though the painting is set fourth to show a natural pose of a mother and child, the line work and attention to detail in the human form lacks. This painting though a well painted, blends the line work of the bodies making the figures seem almost uncomfortable in their poses. The colors used in this painting may foreshadow an unhappier time for the two, as dark colors tend to represent tragic, mournful and displeased events. As one can see the â€Å"Mona Lisa† from the Renaissance and the â€Å"Virgin and Child† from the Middle Ages, share many similarities in terms of their impressions of humans. Both eras focus their art on humanism, religious, two and three – dimensional works of art, the hatching used to create depth and more dimensions. Both the Renaissance and the Middle Ages have very different ways of executing the precision of the human form. The Renaissance paid very close attention to detail, the line work that is depicted in the human form is natural and lifelike, and where as artists from the Middle Ages who painted humans were stiff and motionless. Though both Eras have great works of art, it was the Renaissance that had more of a well-rounded and idealistic way of executing their work, thusly making it one of the better Eras for art. Resources Page: SNHU. † Chapter Seven The Middle Ages.† 2012 FAS 201, Introduction to Humanities I. SNHU. † Module Eight The Renaissance, Reformation and Age of Exploration.† 2012 FAS 201, Introduction to Humanities I.

History of American Policing Essay

History of American Policing Essay Free Online Research Papers The development of law enforcement in colonial America was similar to that of England during the same time period. Law enforcement in colonial America was considered a local responsibility. As in England, the colonies established a system of night watch to guard cities against fire, crime, and disorder. In addition to night watch systems, there were sheriffs appointed by the governor and constables elected by the people. These individuals were responsible for maintaining order and providing other services. Nalla and Newman have described the following problems plaguing colonial cities that were considered the responsibility of the police: controlling slaves and Indians; maintaining order; regulating specialized functions such as selling in the market and delivering goods; maintaining health and sanitation; managing pests and other animals; ensuring the orderly use of vehicles; controlling liquor, gambling, vice, and weapons; and keeping watch for fires. While night watch groups were established in the northern colonies, groups of white men organized into slave patrols in the southern colonies. These slave patrols were responsible for controlling, returning, and punishing runaway slaves. The slave patrols helped to maintain the economic order in the southern colonies. These slave patrols are generally considered to be the first â€Å"modern† police organizations in this country. In 1837, Charleston, South Carolina, had a slave patrol with over one hundred officers, which was far larger than any northern city police force at that (Walker, 1999). Policing on the western frontier varied widely. According to Langworthy and Travis, settlers originally from northern colonies created marshals and police forces similar to those in northern colonies, while settlers from southern colonies developed systems with sheriffs and posses. In many western settlements, however, there was no formal organized law enforcement. In these areas, groups of vigilantes were formed by volunteer citizens to combat any threat to the order of the settlements. These groups of self-appointed law enforcers had a significant influence on collective social norms, including the lack of respect for the law, which had been haphazardly enforced primarily through vigilante violence. In the 1800s, changes in American society forced changes in law enforcement. Especially, the process of industrialization, urbanization, and immigration changed this country from a primarily homogenous agrarian society to a heterogeneous, urban one. Citizens left rural areas and flocked to the cities in search of employment. Hundreds of thousands of immigrants came to reside in America. Unsanitary living conditions and poverty characterized American cities. The poor, predominantly immigrant urban areas were plagued with increases in crime and disorder. As a direct result, a series of riots occurred throughout the 1830s in numerous American cities. Many of these riots were the result of poor living conditions, poverty, and conflicts between ethnic groups. These riots directly illustrated the need for larger and better-organized law enforcement. Both the watch systems in the north and the slave patrols in the south began to evolve into modern police organizations that were heavily infl uenced by modern departments developing in England during the same time period (Walker, 1999). The first modern police forces in America borrowed heavily from those established in England. In particular, American law enforcement agencies adopted the mission of crime prevention and control, the strategy of preventive patrol, and the quasi-military organizational design of the first modern police department established in London. In addition to these three elements, American policing borrowed other features from the British system, for example, the tradition that police have limitations on their authority (Walker, 1999). The protection of individual liberties was highly emphasized in both England and America, therefore limits were placed on governmental and police authority. This was not the case in other European countries, where, as Walker notes, police agencies were given broader powers and citizens had fewer individual liberties. Another feature borrowed from the English heritage is that of local control of police agencies. Although many other countries have one centralized, national law enforcement agency, the English and American systems do not. In the American system of law enforcement, police are controlled at the local, state, and federal level, although the majority of departments are local municipalities. A related defining feature of American policing adopted from English heritage is that of highly decentralized and fragmented system of law enforcement. According to 1993 figures, there are nearly twenty thousand different law enforcement agencies within the United States (Maguire et al.). Lack of coordination and cooperation among local law enforcement agencies is generally characteristic of the American system of law enforcement. These three elements (limited police power, lack of centralized control, and a decentralized and fragmented structure), combined with the quasi-military organizational structure of modern departments in England, describe the Anglo-Saxon model of policing. There were differences, however, between the British and American systems of law enforcement. One of the most significant differences is the absence of strong political influences over police organizations in England, compared to the strong relationship between politics and policing that existed in American policing (Walker, 1999). While police administrators in England were protected from political influence, politics heavily influenced American police agencies. In fact, policing during the nineteenth century in America has been described as inefficient, ineffective, lacking professionalism, and highly corrupt (Walker, 1999). Numerous scholars have described the evolution of policing in America. Although the historical facts are generally not disputed, the interpretation of these vents does raise some debate. Within this entry, the evolution of policing in America will be presented loosely following the framework devised by Kelling and Moore, which describes three distinct eras (political, reform, and community). As previously noted, American policing in the late nineteenth century was plagued with political influence. Local politicians used positions on the police force to reward their supporters after an election. Therefore the ethnic and religious composition of police forces often reflected the groups who had local political influence. In addition, positions and promotions on local police forces could be bought. For example, Walker (1999) notes that in New York City, â€Å"a $300 payment to the Tammany Hall political machine was the only requirement for appointment to the force†. There was little or no training given to officers, no recruitment standards to speak of, and no job security because officers could be hired or fired at will. Corruption was a major characteristic of policing during this time period. Low-ranking officers, high-ranking police officials, and sometimes even entire departments were involved in corruption and misconduct. Patrol officers often accepted bribes t o not enforce laws controlling moral crimes (e.g., drinking, gambling, and prostitution). This type of corruption was well known and pervasive. Police work during this time period has been described as hopelessly inefficient due to officers’ reliance on foot patrol with no effective communication system and little direct supervision. Officers often evaded work due to the lack of official oversight and citizens had difficulty contacting the police because the officers could not be located on their beats. However, police did provide a variety of social services to citizens, including feeding the hungry and housing the homeless. For example, Whitehouse reports that the Boston Police Department during the 1800s was responsible for a variety of public services, which included lodging the homeless, removing dirt and garbage, and checking every household daily for cases of cholera. Other urban departments also routinely housed the homeless and looked after wayward youths. Walker, however, cautions against the â€Å"myth that officers were friendly, knowledgeable about the neighborhood, and helpful† (1999). He suggests that due to the high turnover of police officers and residential mobility, officers were unlikely to have close relations with people in their neighborhood. Furthermore, he suggests that police frequently used physical force and enjoyed little citizen respect. During this time period, increases in citizen violence finally led to the adoption of weapons carried by police officers. The nostalgic interpretation of police as friendly neighborhood characters walking the beat has led some scholars to caution that the good old days were not that good (Walker,1984). Surprisingly, the daily duties of patrol officers during this time did not differ significantly from activities performed by patrol officers today. The diary of a patrol officer from the Boston Police Department in 1895 describes most of his time spent responding to minor problems in the neighborhood and handling many problems informally (von Hoffman, 1992). It appears that officers during the political era spent little time handling major problems or serious incidents and rarely invoked the legal system. This is also true of patrol officers today. Police in America changed dramatically during the twentieth century. According to Walker (1999), three principle forces were underlying this change: the police professionalism movement, modern technologies, and the civil rights movement. Other scholars suggest that police reform was the result of investigative commissions, reform initiated by police administrators, and political reform in general (Gaines et al). In the early 1900s, a broad social and political movement in America, progressivism, was bringing attention demanding reform across a broad spectrum of social problems. Progressives believed it was the government’s responsibility to improve the living conditions of citizens. They called for the regulation of big business and corrupt local politics, changes in labor laws, and improvements across all social welfare services. Included in this larger reform effort was the professionalization of police forces. The professionalization movement sought to reform the inefficient and corrupt police agencies that had developed during the nineteenth century. During this reform era, there was a total restructuring of police departments and a redefinition of the police role due to the perceived failure of police to enforce the law (Walker, 1977). Reformers sought to eliminate political influences, hire qualified leaders, and raise personnel standards. In addition, the reform agenda called f or a mission of nonpartisan public service and restructuring of police organizations through the use of the principles of scientific management and the development of specialized units (Walker, 1999). Several prominent police reforms had a significant influence on policing during this time period. Richard Sylvester, superintendent of the Washington, D.C., Police Department from 1898 to 1915, became the national voice for police reform. He served as president of the International Association of Chiefs of Police (IACP) and had a significant impact on the acceptance of the reform agenda across numerous departments. Similarly, August Vollmer, police chief in Berkeley, California, from 1905 to 1932, advocated the hiring of college graduates and offered the first collegiate course in police science at the University of California. Vollmer is also famous for the development of the principles of modern police administration. Advocates of the concepts of administrative efficiency sought to â€Å"centralize the authority within the police departments† and to â€Å"rationalize the procedures of command control† (Walker, 1977). The reform of police agencies during the first part of the twentieth century was very slow to develop, and in some cities the impact of early reform efforts was nonexistent. Although considerable gains were made in agencies of cities such as Cincinnati and Berkeley, reform efforts were largely ineffective in other agencies, such as those of Los Angeles and Chicago (Walker, 1977). Efforts to professionalize the police increased after the 1931 reports by the Wickersham Commission, which contained vivid descriptions of police misconduct and use of force. The Wickersham Commission Report was the first national study of the criminal justice system in America and had a significant impact on the revitalization of the reform movement. Professionalization continued under the direction of O.W. Wilson, one of Vollmer’s protà ©gà ©s. Wilson was chief of police in Wichita, Kansas, from 1928 to 1935, a professor of criminology at the University of California, and chief of the Chicago Police Department in the 1960s. Wilson had a significant impact on organizational changes within police departments during this time, largely through his textbook Police Administration (1950). Utilizing scientific principles of management, Wilson emphasized workload distribution based on calls for service and efficient management of personnel through bureaucratic design. Wilson also encouraged departments to gauge their success through measurable outcomes (numbers of arrests, citations, etc.) and rapid response to calls for service. Also influential during this time period was J. Edgar Hoover, director of the Federal Bureau of Investigations (F.B.I.). Hoover’s leadership of the F.B.I. had a direct influence on local agencies because of his portrayal of agents under his command as highly trained and educated, professional, and honest. In addition, he instituted the Bureau’s Top Ten Most Wanted List, controlled the Uniform Crime Report (UCR) system, and effectively communicated to citizens that his organization was involved in a â€Å"war on crime†. Most local departments wanted to emulate the professional F.B.I. agents and thus perpetuated the â€Å"crime fighter† image. New technologies also had a significant influence on policing in the early to mid-twentieth century. Three technologies, in particular, have revolutionized policing: the two-way radio, the patrol car, and the telephone. As previously noted, policing in the nineteenth century was characterized as ineffective and inefficient, in part because officers could not be contacted on their beats. With the advent of the two-way radio, officers could be notified about calls for service and police supervisors could contact their officers directly. This change in technology had a significant impact on the provision of services to the public and the supervision of police personnel. Likewise, the use of patrol cars in the 1920s greatly enhanced the mobility of police officers and significantly reduced their response time to calls for service from citizens. Finally, the use of the telephone allowed citizens to have direct contact with the police department. Citizens were encouraged to call the police for any type of situation and the police promised a rapid response. These new technologies also had unintended consequences on policing, the effect of which was not fully understood until much later. For example, the patrol car served to isolate patrol officers from the community. Previously, when officers patrolled on foot, they had an opportunity to engage citizens in conversations and had a familiarity with the neighborhood that was lost once officers patrolled in cars. When officers drove through neighborhoods with their windows rolled up, citizens perceived officers as outsiders in their communities. Encouraging citizens to call the police for service and promising a rapid response dramatically increased the workload of officers. Citizens began to call the police for minor problems and the police continued to respond. In addition, police were called to handle private matters that they had not been responsible for in the past. The interactions between citizens and police took on a more personal nature as police responded to citizens’ homes rather than simply patrolling and engaging citizens on the street. As described by Walker, the result of these new technologies â€Å"was a complex and contradictory change in police-citizen contacts. Whereas the patrol car isolated the police from the people on the streets, the telephone brought police officers into peoples’ living rooms, kitchens, and bedrooms. There, officers became involved in the most intimate domestic problems† (1999). The 1960s were a period characterized by much civil unrest. Citizens were dissatisfied with the social and political conditions, and particularly with the treatment of minorities. During this time, the U.S. Supreme Court decided a series of landmark cases that limited the investigative techniques used by the police officers. For example, the court decided in Mapp v. Ohio (367 U.S. 643 (1961), that evidence obtained during a search and seizure that violated citizens’ Fourth Amendment rights could not be used against them in a court of law. Dubbed the exclusionary rule, Mapp guaranteed that the fruits of an unconstitutional search could not be used during prosecution. In 1966, the court ruled in Miranda v. Arizona, 384 U.S. 436, that a suspect must be advised of his or her right against self-incrimination (protected by the Fifth Amendment) and the right to council (protected by the Sixth Amendment) before police can interrogate that suspect. Any admission of guilt obtained prior to giving the Miranda warnings cannot be used against the suspect during prosecution. Critics of these and other decisions claimed that the Supreme Court was â€Å"handcuffing† police. Most studies have shown, however, that these rulings did not have the substantial influence that either side believed would result (Leo). During this time, the civil rights movement was gaining momentum and becoming more militant. Protestors gathered to demonstrate against race discrimination and injustice within the criminal justice system. White male police officers became the symbol of all the political and social ills of American society. Police officers across the country responded to protestors with physical brutality, which served to increase the tension between minority groups and the police. This tension exploded in the form of riots and civil disobedience, often sparked by incidents involving the police (Walker, 1999). In response, a series of presidential commissions were ordered to investigate these issues. The most famous, the Kerner Commission investigated the causes of the nearly two hundred disorders that had taken place in 1967. The Kerner Commission reported that there was deep hostility and distrust between minorities and the police. The report recommended the hiring of more minority officers and that police practices be changed significantly. Interestingly, the commission reported that those departments that were believed to be the most â€Å"professional† were, in fact, those that had the most serious disturbances and civil unrest. This challenged many of the assumptions of the professionalism movement (National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders). Findings from social-scientific research further raised concern about the effectiveness of â€Å"professional† police departments. The American Bar Foundation’s (AFB) field observation of police in 1956-1957 reported that officers exercised large amounts of discretion during encounters with citizens. Contrary to the popular conception of police officers as â€Å"crime fighters’, studies found that officers spent most of the time maintaining order, providing services, and performing administrative tasks (Wilson; Bittner). The Kansas City Preventive Patrol Experiment found that increasing the level of preventive patrol within an area did not have a significant influence on the level of crime or reduce citizens’ fear of crime ( Kellin et al). A study examining the effectiveness of criminal investigations reported that the percentage of crimes cleared by arrest is relatively low, that follow-up work is often unproductive, and that most detective work involves mundane tasks and paperwork (Greenwood and Petersilia). Another study showed that increases in the response time of officers did not increase the likelihood of obtaining an arrest (Pate et al.). Evaluations of the effects of team policing ( a police tactic that involves the creation of specialized teams responsible for policing particular geographic areas) showed no influence on the level of crime (Sherman, Milton, and Kelly). Collectively, these studies suggested that current police practices were not effective in preventing crime or satisfying citizens. The 1960s police-citizen crisis, coupled with research findings from the 1970s, questioned the core philosophies underlying policing in America. In a seminal article on policing, Wilson and Kelling proposed the broken windows thesis. They argued that a broken window in an abandoned building or car is a symbol that no one cares about the property, making it ripe for criminal activity. Wilson and Kelling stressed the importance of controlling minor crimes and disorders in an effort to curb more serious crime. Making citizens feel safer and improving their quality of life should be the goal of the police. This idea sparked the development of a number of different police strategies and tactics designed to improve police-community relations. The philosophy of community policing is built upon the premise that reducing citizens’ fear of crime while forming a partnership between the police and the community is a worthwhile goal of police organizations. Particular tactics utilized in this philosophy include foot patrol, problem-solving, police substations, and community groups, among others. These tactics stress citizen satisfaction and improvements in citizens’ quality of life. In addition to changes in tactics, changes in organizational design must also accompany community policing. Police organizations are to become decentralized, flatter hierarchies with less bureaucratic control. Patrol officers at the lowest level are encouraged to be creative in their responses to problems and are given more discretion to advance their problem-solving efforts. Kelling and Moore have described the 1970s and 1980s as an era in which a shift toward community policing occurred. They suggest that community policing is a strategic change complete with changes in organizational structures, tactics, and outcomes. However, changes in organizational design appear to be more theoretical than practical. Maguire’s examination of organizational change in a sample of large departments shows that there were no significant changes in the bureaucratic structures of police agencies practicing community policing in the 1990s compared to those who were not. Although community policing and problem-solving have been popular policing strategies, some departments are utilizing zero-tolerance policies. Zero-tolerance policies encourage the use of aggressive police tactics and full enforcement of minor offenses. For example, the New York Police Department instituted zero-tolerance policies in the mid-1990s in an effort to reduce minor disorders and control crime. Based on the â€Å"broken windows† hypothesis, aggressive enforcement of minor crimes is predicted to produce the same outcomes of increasing citizen satisfaction and improving quality of life that are sought under the models of community policing. However, the tactics are very different. Community policing encourages partnership development, less frequent use of arrest, and more creative responses to particular problems. Zero-tolerance policies encourage the use of arrest and other get-tough policies. Furthermore, trends in the militarization of police have been well document ed. The number of police agencies that use police paramilitary units and special weapons and tactics teams (SWAT) has increased by over 80 percent since 1970 (Kraska and Kappeler). It is clear that the idea of the existence of a â€Å"community era† in policing is not without critics. Walker (1984) claims that scholars have misinterpreted and misused history in their descriptions of the â€Å"community era†. Williams and Murphy suggest that scholars have not attended to the obvious influences of slavery, segregation, and discrimination on policing throughout history. Somewhat surprisingly, the description and interpretation of the history of police continues to be a matter of great debate. Perhaps this is due to our need to fully understand the events of the past to effectively guide the events of the future. REFERENCES BITTNER, EGON. The Functions of the Police in Modern Society. Rockville, Md,: New York: Bobbs-Merill, 1963. GAINES, LARRY K.; KAPPELER, VICTOR E,; and VAUGHN, JOSEPH B. Policing in America. Cincinnatti, Ohio: Anderson Publishing, 1999. GREENWOOD, PETER W., and PETERSILIA, JOAN. The Criminal Investigation Process, Vol. 1, Summary and Policy Implications. Santa Monica, Calif.: RAND, 1975. KELLING, GEORGE L., et al. Kansas City Preventive Patrol Experiment: A Summary Report. Washington, D.C.: The Police Foundation, 1974. KRASHA, PETER B., and KAPPELER, VICTOR E. â€Å"Militarizing American Police: The Rise and Normalization of Paramilitary Units,† Social Problems 44, no.1 (1997):1-18. LANGWHORTHY, ROBERT H., and TRAVIS, LAWRENCE P., III. Policing in America: A Balance of Forces. 2d ed. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1999. L Research Papers on History of American Policing EssayCombating Human TraffickingThe Colour PurplePoverty, Violence and Conflict How are they Related?The Broken FamilyGlobal Distributive Justice is UtopianThe Obama Presidency EssayPuerto Rico: Music and Culture EssayAmerican Central Banking and OilEmmett Till BiographyHas the British Welfare System been

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